Fertility, Contraception,
and Childbirth in Ancient Rome
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On Conception… The aim of Roman matrimony was procreation, rendering theories of procreative potential extremely important. Soranus suggests that women "from the ages of fifteen to forty…not mannish, compact, oversturdy or too flabby and very moist," with uteri as, "neither very moist or dry, not too lax or constricted,"were one's best shot at producer of offspring.1 From a rather negative standpoint, Soranus attempts to identify outward signs of female sterility. These include: importance in the size of head and proportions of eyes and features. Small heads and eyes are always bad signs, however, not all large heads are to be interpreted as good. Protruding foreheads are especially bad.2 According to Soranus, the best time for conception is "when menstruation is ending and abating and when the urge and appetite for coitus are present." The couple should be sober and comfortable. The ingestion of a snack and a good rubdown before coitus further aid conception. A pleasant state is also important during the act.3 Conception leading to the successful birth of a male heir was the goal of many married couples. Therefore, obviously theories would be created regarding the circumstances under which a desired gender might be conceived. Several important ones include the heat theory, and the dominant sperm theory. The dominant conceptive idea during Roman times was the double-seed theory. Both parents seeming to contribute to the traits of their children were viewed as a result of both producing semen to comingle in the woman's womb, both supposedly at the time of orgasm. The parent with the dominant sperm contributed the more apparent characteristics.4 Soranus also believed women should be "sober during coitus" because the soul becomes "the victim of strange fantasies" during drunkenness and the offspring will resemble the mother in body and soul. In the logic of Hippocrates, if both parents produced strong sperm, the child was to be male…and if both produced weak semen, a female child would ensue. Should one parent produce strong, and one weak sperm, the gender of the child should be determined the more vivacious sperm. According to Lucretius (On the Nature of Things 1200-1250) "When the male seed and the female seed are fused, one partner may be dominant, overpower the other in a burst of violence. If this should be the woman then the child shall have her features and qualities. The same if the man assumes the role of dominance, the children will be more like the father." Another author advised (note the incorrect estimation of a woman's ovulatory/fertile period): "The best time for conception is when the menstrual flow has stopped. It is especially during these days that one should see if a woman is able to conceive, for they are most successful for fertility. If she does not conceive straight away, and everything else is well with her, nothing stops her from going to her husband on other days, for the habit will excite her desire and cause her passages to open. If the ejaculate from the man runs together directly with that of the woman, she will conceive,'5 Thus, even in a context that demanded female seed, the Hippocratics realized that the time of the month was more signifigant for conception. That the heat of lovemaking determined the sex of the offspring is mentioned by Hippocrates, and believed by the Romans.6 The idea is that coitus creates heat and pleasure throughout the female body, reaching its acme with the introduction of sperm. Galen, based on the postulation that both the right ovary and the right testicle, being warmer, produce warmer sperm. This male semen produce a male child.7 First
Pregnancy Stage: The woman might at this point, consult the midwife, and when pregnancy seemed likely, the first stage of prenatal care began. This stage focused exclusively on retaining the seed within the womb, which was regarded as tricky business, since many activities were believed to dislodge it. Strong emotions and sudden movements were guarded against, and more specifically, "forced detention of breath, coughing, sneezing, blows and falls...lifting heavy weights, leaping, sitting on hard sedan chairs... want,...drunkenness, ...flow of blood from the nose, etc".9 Soranus continues with the care of a woman through this seed-preservation phase involved anointment with freshly ground oil from unripe olives, confinement to bed for two days, and a light diet of grains. Relaxing activities were to be avoided for a weeks time, such as imbibing wine or enjoying baths, so as to avoid weakening the seed. Gradually, activity and food (still neutral) were to increase, however sexual intercourse was barred, allowing the uterus to rest.10 Second
Pregnancy Stage: With the onset of symptoms, a one day fast was prescribed to ease the stomach and prevent sickness, and an oil rubdown was given. Small portions of easily digestible food were given, such as porridge or soft-boiled eggs, along with cold water. Astringents such as rose oil, myrtle, or unripe olive oil were sometimes applied to relax an extremely upset stomach, along with having a tightly wrapped woolen girdle. Most importantly, unhealthy foods (despite cravings) should be kept at distance.12 Third
Pregnancy Stage: Wine and sweet-water baths were enjoyed to calm the woman's mind. The belly was rubbed with oil (to avoid stretch marks), the genitals were anointed with herbs, and the vagina injected with softening oils such as goose fat.13. Childbirth Once again the finest source of information on obsetretics is Soreanus; his descriptions as always are clear concise derailed and free of superstition. Here, Soranus suggests the items a midwife ought to have in order to attend a normal labor and delivery:
The
Birthing Stool
Soranus recommends that the sides of the stool from the seat to the ground be entirely sealed in with boards while the front and the back be left open for the midwife's enterprise. Later in the text, Soranus mentions that if a midwife's stool is not available, the parturient can sit on the lap of another woman, who, must be sufficiently stalwart to bear the mother's weight and hold her still.16 It is not a great challenge to theorize that the children of destitute parents may have been delivered without a midwife's stool at all if the midwives they employed did not have the funds to purchase a birthing stool. Many midwives must have carried only a kit. It seems quite relevant the amount of time spent focusing on the birthing stool, both midwives and doctors were convinced that delivery was facilitated when the mother sat in an upright position.17 The chair has a has a curved opening in the seat through which the baby would be delivered. The chair had arm-rests, in the shape of the letter "pi," for the mother to grasp during delivery, a sturdy back was also needed which if parturient was to press her hips and buttocks. Some birthing chairs were far more elaborate than others including high arms backs and even padding. The impliction of Soranus's description, is that some midwives' stools did not have backs and that an attendant stood behind the parturient to support her, a less desirable arrangement because of the danger that the parturient might recline or slip backwards, causing danger to everyone involved.18
The midwife finally
readied her supplies as labor began in earnest. As labor dragged along,
the parturient lay on her back on a hard, low bed with support under her
hips. Her thighs were parted with her feet drawn up. Gentle massage was
implimented to ease labor agony and the linement used was a cloth soaked
in warm olive oil laid over the stomach and genital area. Against the woman's
sides were placed hot compresses in the form of warm oil-filled bladders.
Soreanus believed, that
According to Soranus'
instructions: In a normal headfirst delivery, the cervical opening must be stretched slightly, and the rest of the body is pulled out. Soranus instructs the midwife to wrap her hands in pieces of cloth or thin papyrus so that the slippery newborn does not slide out of her grasp. Soranus seems to think that if the midwife's hands are so wrapped, she will not inadvertently squeeze the baby too hard in her efforts to maintain a firm hold.21 The midwife was also to take care that the umbilical cord was not distended and to remove gently the placenta immediately after the birth of the baby. Of course, these methods represent the medical ideal of the time. Part of Soranus' idea of a good midwife includes literacy and lack of superstition. The fact that colloquial methods and superstitious ideas entered the birthing room cannot be ignored. An educated midwife must have been hard to find, even in urban areas.
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